The long-term impact of wastewater irrigation in the era of global concern of antibiotic resistance: A perspective from a developing country

Insufficient supply of fresh water remains a global problem, particularly in Africa and Middle East. Using wastewater effluent as an alternative water source for irrigating crops has become a feasible alternative; this relieves demand for fresh water. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are widely recognized as reservoirs for antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) that are associated with pathogenesis. This is because WWTPs receive water from various sources and frequently contain antibiotic resistance determinants. Following treatment, wastewater effluent is often discharged into rivers and ponds which are used for irrigation of crops, resulting in the introduction of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and ARGs into agricultural soils. Many countries have embarked on surveillance and monitoring of antibiotic resistance dissemination in agricultural environments. However, in Botswana no studies have been carried out on dissemination of antibiotic resistance in the environment particularly in agro-ecosystems. This review will provide a perspective on the long-term impact of wastewater irrigation and a proposal for monitoring antibiotic resistance in a developing country in this era of growing concern on antibiotic resistance.